{"id":783,"date":"2021-11-12T20:59:15","date_gmt":"2021-11-12T20:59:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/terrascope2025.wpengine.com\/?page_id=783"},"modified":"2021-11-23T04:51:59","modified_gmt":"2021-11-23T04:51:59","slug":"why-not-hydrogen-fuel","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/terrascope2025.mit.edu\/?page_id=783","title":{"rendered":"Ships Alternate Solutions"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Ships Alternate Solutions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><meta charset=\"utf-8\"\/><strong>Why not Hydrogen Fuel?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hydrogen is a great fuel source compared to current carbon-intensive fuel sources, such as heavy-oil fuel that is mainly used on ships. When combusted with oxygen or consumed in a fuel cell, hydrogen does not directly emit carbon dioxide. Hydrogen is also versatile as a fuel, because it can be used as a feedstock for other fuels such as ammonia and methanol. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_1');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp; Hydrogen is particularly promising in the long-range shipping industry, since it can be stored for long periods of time and in large quantities. Hydrogen fuel cell technology for ship engines already exists, and can even be retrofitted to existing ships. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Reinsch, William Alan, and Will O&#8217;Neill. \u201cHydrogen: The Key to Decarbonizing the Global Shipping Industry?\u201d Hydrogen: The Key to Decarbonizing the Global Shipping Industry? | Center for&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_2');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While hydrogen itself is abundant in the form of various chemical compounds, pure hydrogen has to be produced from other compounds, since it is rare. Unfortunately, most of the processes to produce hydrogen also produce CO<sub>2<\/sub>. 95% of hydrogen produced today is made from fossil fuels. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gencer, Emre. \u201cHydrogen.\u201d MIT Climate Portal. Accessed November 16, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/climate.mit.edu\/explainers\/hydrogen.<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Hydrogen is typically classified by how it is produced: \u201cgrey\u201d hydrogen is produced from natural gas, \u201cbrown\u201d or \u201cblack\u201d hydrogen is produced from coal, and \u201cblue\u201d hydrogen is produced through one of these methods but with the CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions captured and stored, having net zero emissions.<sup>&nbsp; <\/sup>\u201cGreen\u201d hydrogen is produced through electrolysis- the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen molecules- through various processes involving zero-carbon electricity. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_4');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-large\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\/\/terrascope2025.wpengine.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/greenhdro-1024x576.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1139\" srcset=\"https:\/\/terrascope2025.mit.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/greenhdro-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/terrascope2025.mit.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/greenhdro-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/terrascope2025.mit.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/greenhdro-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/terrascope2025.mit.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/greenhdro.jpeg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption>Figure 1: How is Green Hydrogen Produced? <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><em>How Is Green Hydrogen Produced?<\/em> <em>Hydro Tasmania<\/em>. Hydro-Electric Corporation, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.hydro.com.au\/clean-energy\/hydrogen.<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When it comes to switching to hydrogen as a low-carbon fuel source, green hydrogen is ideal. Unfortunately, while the processes to produce green hydrogen exist, they are not currently widespread, mostly due to their comparatively high cost. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_6');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><sup>&nbsp;<\/sup>One of the barriers to producing green hydrogen is the current electric grid. The net emissions of green hydrogen are dependent on the electricity used during its production process. If the green hydrogen is produced using electricity from a net-zero emissions grid, then it has no net carbon emissions. Thus, the switch to green hydrogen is largely dependent on the switch to zero-carbon energy sources on a larger scale. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_7');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There are other challenges to hydrogen as a fuel source in addition to its production. The largest of these challenges has to do with the storage of hydrogen. Since it is a small molecule, it must be compressed, liquified at extremely low temperatures, or stored using a porous material. It is also more prone to leakage than other gaseous fuels, and is not compatible with much of the current infrastructure due to how it reacts with pipeline steels. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_8');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In conclusion, while hydrogen is a very promising fuel alternative, the current challenges to green hydrogen production result in it being a more long-term solution. The transition to green hydrogen as a cost-competitive and widely available fuel source will require significant public investment in other green energy sources, government subsidies of hydrogen, and hydrogen storage and transportation infrastructure. That transition will also rely on technological advancements in the green energy sector and green hydrogen production. Unfortunately, minimizing the emissions from maritime trade cannot wait for the challenges of hydrogen fuel to be overcome.&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><strong>Why not Ammonia Fuel?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In many ways, ammonia is an extremely promising potential fuel source. Ammonia can be used to produce energy either by burning it in a combustion engine or with a fuel cell,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021.&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_9');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> or a device that uses chemical reactions to convert the energy in fuels to electricity.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"> Schumm, Brooke. n.d. \u201cFuel Cell.\u201d In <em>Encyclopedia Britannica<\/em>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/fuel-cell\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/fuel-cell<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> However, there are several obstacles to using it as a fuel source for ships that make adoption in the short-term unfeasible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Currently, ammonia production is fairly carbon-intensive. The process used to produce ammonia, known as the Haber-Bosch process, is responsible for 1.8% of the world&#8217;s annual CO\u2082 emissions.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021.&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_11');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> However, it is possible to produce green ammonia that has close to no CO\u2082 emissions. Ammonia is made up of hydrogen and nitrogen. Green ammonia is made from green hydrogen, which is hydrogen produced from water electrolysis powered by renewable energy. This hydrogen is then bound to nitrogen to produce ammonia in the Haber-Bosch process, also powered by renewable energy. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Murray, Adrienne. 2020. \u201cThe Foul-Smelling Fuel That Could Power Big Ships.\u201d <em>BBC News<\/em>, November 6, 2020, sec. Business. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Because all steps of the process are powered by renewable energy, there are minimal carbon emissions in the production of green ammonia.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite its potential promise as a zero-carbon fuel, there are several dangers associated with the adoption of ammonia. Ammonia is toxic, and so it would require additional safety measures such as the installation of emergency ventilation systems to keep ship workers safe if using it. In addition, ammonia can corrode some metals and plastics.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ammonia also has several challenges when used in a combustion engine. It is difficult to burn and may have to be combined with other substances such as diesel fuel or liquid hydrogen to make it ignite more easily. While ammonia has no CO\u2082 emissions, it does produce nitrous oxide emissions when burned. Nitrous oxides cause acid rain and are a more potent greenhouse gas than CO\u2082. Using ammonia in a fuel cell does eliminate these harmful emissions. However, current fuel cells cannot produce enough power for a ship.&nbsp;<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_13\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021.&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_13');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While there are multiple projects in progress to develop ammonia ships, they are all years from completion. For example, the Norwegian company Eidsvik is planning to use ammonia fuel cells to power an electric motor on one of its vessels by the end of 2023,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_14\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Murray, Adrienne. 2020. \u201cThe Foul-Smelling Fuel That Could Power Big Ships.\u201d <em>BBC News<\/em>, November 6, 2020, sec. Business. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> and Samsung Heavy Industries is working with MAN Energy solutions to create an oil tanker that runs on ammonia by 2024.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_15\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021.&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_15');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The main reason that Terrascope 2025 chose not to focus on ammonia is that it cannot be implemented at a large scale in the short term. The technology to make ammonia vessels is still not well developed. While it may be a promising fuel for the long-term future in shipping, Terrascope 2025 chose to focus on solutions that could be implemented in the relatively near future.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><strong>Why not Nuclear Fuel?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Powering ships using nuclear power has many advantages. It\u2019s carbon neutral, allows ships to travel about 50% faster than oil-fueled ships, <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_16\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Contributor, Glenfiddich. \u201cGlenfiddich Brandvoice: Meet High Achievers Reimagining Wealth.\u201d Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 28 Oct. 2021,&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_16');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> a chunk of uranium the size of a grapefruit will power the ship for upto 60 years with the proper set up. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_17\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u201cEconomically Feasible Mobile Nuclear Power Plant for Merchant Ships and Remote Clients.\u201d <em>Taylor &amp; Francis<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/00295450.2018.1546067\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/00295450.2018.1546067<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> It\u2019s also a huge cost saver in the long run since the running cost of fuel is no longer an economic factor<sup> <\/sup>&nbsp;and the ships won\u2019t need to stop for refueling or waste a lot of space on fuel storage. However, it\u2019s not a solution that can be immediately implemented since ships can\u2019t be simply modified to use nuclear-power; they need to be specially built for nuclear-power.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_18');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_18');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_18\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u201cNuclear Merchant Ships: Five Fast Facts.\u201d <em>ANS<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ans.org\/news\/article-2010\/nuclear-merchant-ships-five-fast-facts\/\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.ans.org\/news\/article-2010\/nuclear-merchant-ships-five-fast-facts\/<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_18').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_18', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> A ship needs to have the proper safety parts and a completely different engine which is too large to install in an existing ship. Since ships are a large economical investment, this may be a problem for companies expecting a 20-30 lifespan.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_19');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_19');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[19]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_19\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><em>Maritime Vessel Obsolescence, Life Cycle Cost &#8230; &#8211; Iopscience<\/em>. <a href=\"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1757-899X\/95\/1\/012067\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1757-899X\/95\/1\/012067<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_19').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_19', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Another important point to mention is that the initial costs associated with building and fueling a nuclear-powered ship are 2-2.5 times <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_20');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_20');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_20\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Namikawa, Shunichiro, et al. \u201cNuclear Powered Ships. Findings from a Feasibility Study.\u201d Nuclear Powered Ships. Findings from a Feasibility Study (Conference) | ETDEWEB, 1 July 2011,&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_20');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_20').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_20', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> greater than those in an oil-powered ship. This is yet another discouraging factor for companies in the short-term. Finally, it should also be noted that the public image of nuclear energy is negative at the moment, due to the past accidents involving leakages and improper disposal. Companies might face a lot of backlash from people who are against the use of nuclear-power, and employees could possibly leave due to fear for their health.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><strong>Why not Electric?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While electrification of shipping is promising for short distance routes, implementation in longer routes is largely agreed to be infeasible. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_21');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_21');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[21]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_21\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Appl-Scorza, Sophia, Jana Lippelt, and Christina Littlejohn. \u201cChallenges of Electrification of Heavy and Long-Haul Traffic.\u201d CESifo, 2018.&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_21');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_21').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_21', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> The key problem with introducing electricity as a fuel for ships is the challenge of scaling up batteries to support the amount of energy necessary to travel over long distances. The first electric container ship, the <em>Yara Birkeland<\/em>, began operating in 2019. However, the most advanced diesel ships can currently carry 150 times as much cargo as the Yara Birkeland, 400 times further and three to four times faster.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_22');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_22');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[22]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_22\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Smil, Vaclav. \u201cElectric Container Ships Are Stuck on the Horizon.\u201d IEEE Spectrum, February 29, 2019. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/2021-top-10-tech-cars.<\/span> <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_22').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_22', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Additionally, existing diesel ships utilize diesel fuel with an energy density of about 11,700 watt-hours per kilogram (Wh\/kg), while today\u2019s lithium-ion batteries run at 300 Wh\/kg.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_23');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_23');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[23]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_23\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Smil, Vaclav. \u201cElectric Container Ships Are Stuck on the Horizon.\u201d IEEE Spectrum, February 29, 2019. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/2021-top-10-tech-cars.<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_23').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_23', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> For a ship to run on an electric engine that produces as much energy as a diesel engine, the batteries would need to have an energy density more than 10 times as high as existing lithium-ion batteries to account for both battery weight and efficiency .<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_24');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_24');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[24]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_24\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Smil, Vaclav. \u201cElectric Container Ships Are Stuck on the Horizon.\u201d IEEE Spectrum, February 29, 2019. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/2021-top-10-tech-cars.<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_24').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_24', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  Additionally, the energy density of the most advanced commercial batteries hasn\u2019t yet quadrupled in the past 70 years .<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_25');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_25');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[25]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_25\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Smil, Vaclav. \u201cElectric Container Ships Are Stuck on the Horizon.\u201d IEEE Spectrum, February 29, 2019. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/2021-top-10-tech-cars.<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_25').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_25', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Considering the immediate nature of the climate crisis and the short term scope of this proposed solution, electrification of shipping is not further considered.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><strong>Why not Liquid Natural Gas?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is sometimes considered a popular alternative fuel because it is seen as a transition phase from coal to green fuels. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_26');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_26');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[26]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_26\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">The Carbon-Neutral LNG Market: Creating a Framework for Real Emissions Reductions. Columbia Sipa Center on Global Energy Policy. (2021, July 8). Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_26');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_26').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_26', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> It is increasing in popularity, and over 150 ships are already using LNG. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_27');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_27');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[27]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_27\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Hickin, P. (2020, June 4). Analysis: LNG fails to Answer Shipping&#8217;s big energy transition question. S&amp;P Global Platts. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_27');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_27').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_27', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> However, when accounting for its costs and unintended consequences, LNG is relatively ineffective in addressing the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Methane, the main component of liquefied natural gas, is a much stronger greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, contradicting its goal of reducing emissions. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_28');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_28');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[28]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_28\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Questions grow on LNG&#8217;s carbon footprint, despite demand increase. IHS Markit. (2021, June 14). Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_28');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_28').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_28', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Estimates from IHS Markit, an information analytics company, state that methane is 84 times more potent than CO<sub>2<\/sub>. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_29');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_29');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[29]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_29\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Questions grow on LNG&#8217;s carbon footprint, despite demand increase. IHS Markit. (2021, June 14). Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_29');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_29').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_29', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> This means that within 20 years, each kilogram of methane captures around 84 times more heat than that same amount of carbon dioxide. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_30');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_30');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[30]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_30\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">UNECE. (n.d.). <em>The Challenge<\/em>. Methane Management. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/unece.org\/challenge.&nbsp;<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_30').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_30', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Although LNG emits around 50% less carbon dioxide than burning coal does, many calculations of the total greenhouse gas emissions do not consider methane slippages. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_31');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_31');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[31]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_31\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">The Carbon-Neutral LNG Market: Creating a Framework for Real Emissions Reductions. Columbia Sipa Center on Global Energy Policy. (2021, July 8). Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_31');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_31').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_31', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Most of the engines for LNG are around 98% efficient, meaning that around 2% of the methane is not burned and is released into the air as a gas, which is called a methane slip.&nbsp;<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_32');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_32');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[32]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_32\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Barry, M. (2019, November 14). Reducing methane emissions from energy use. Methane Guiding Principles. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_32');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_32').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_32', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><br>In addition, although the cost per volume of LNG is cheaper than methanol, there are other costs associated with modifying the ship engines for LNG that are much greater than methanol\u2019s modifications. It is estimated that modifying the ship engines to adapt to LNG costs two to three times the cost that it takes to make those modifications for methanol. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_33');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_33');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[33]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_33\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Methanol as a marine fuel report &#8211; Methanol Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2021, from&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_33');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_33').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_33', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Investing in LNG could potentially be equally or even more harmful than the status quo in the long run; therefore, methanol is the recommended option.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><strong>Why not Non-Methanol Biofuels?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Biofuels carry energy derived from organic materials usually referred to as biomass. In the current transportation sector, liquid biofuels made from vegetable oil (biodiesel) or other types of crops are used. These are known as first generation biofuels, or fuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel that are produced from agricultural products such as sugar cane and rapeseed. Second generation biofuels are made from non-food plant matter such as agricultural or municipal wastes, or crop residues. These are currently being developed and could be used in the long run, approximately 10 years. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_34');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_34');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[34]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_34\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"> Glossary: Biofuels. Accessed November 20, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.greenfacts.org\/glossary\/abc\/bio-fuels.htm\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.greenfacts.org\/glossary\/abc\/bio-fuels.htm<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_34').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_34', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">SVO (Straight Vegetable Oils), biodiesel, and bio-LNG (Liquified Natural Gas) are usually considered the first generation of biofuels. While SVO is produced from soybeans and rapeseed, biodiesel is a fatty acid alkyl esters mixture. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_35');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_35');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[35]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_35\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_35');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_35').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_35', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> However, there are some problems connected to these fuels. They are made of biomass that has to be produced somewhere, oftentimes the same space&nbsp; food could be produced. Every area where biofuels are produced takes place away from the food production. This means that the production of biofuels is potentially limited, making the worldwide implantation of them hard. The cost of feedstock for the biomass accounts for 75% of the cost of diesel <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_36');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_36');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[36]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_36\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_36');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_36').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_36', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Because of this, a cheaper method of production of biofuels is needed in order to compete with fossil fuels. The cost of biodiesel is higher than diesel fuel. The price of the biodiesel is around $0.40 to $0.53 per litre before taxes, while diesel only costs $0.20\u20130.24 per litre. <meta charset=\"utf-8\"><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_37');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_37');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[37]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_37\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_37');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_37').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_37', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Because of the financial and productional problems mentioned above, first generation biofuels are not easily implemented or economically feasible in the short run.Bio-methane or bio-LNG could be options in the long run (~10 years). Transporting biomethane and bio-LNG requires cryogenic tanks <meta charset=\"utf-8\"><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_38');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_38');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[38]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_38\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_38');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_38').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_38', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> to be installed on the ships, as well as storage facilities along the way.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-genesis-blocks-gb-accordion gb-block-accordion\"><details><summary class=\"gb-accordion-title\"><strong>Why not Ship Design?<\/strong><\/summary><div class=\"gb-accordion-text\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Retrofitting ships is not being pursued as a potential solution because we are narrowing our scope and focusing on short term solutions. However, retrofitting is a strong solution for long term plans.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Retrofitting a ship is building upon current infrastructure to improve energy efficiency, meet equipment standards, and save costs. Rather than building an entire new fleet of ships, ship owners can make adjustments to the current ship structure to keep ships in line with current sustainability standards and reduce CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions. For example, ship owners can implement technology like Blueflow, an online cloud system, which integrates easily with already existing onboard technology and enables crews to evaluate navigation and monitor energy consumption on the ship. According to a study by The Retrofit Project, using Blueflow can cut fuel consumption and reduce CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions by up to 1,989 tons\/year.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_39');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_39');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[39]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_39\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u201cThe Retrofit Project.\u201d Green Ship of the Future, 2020.&nbsp;<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_39').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_39', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite this potential solution, most retrofit projects are not feasible as a part of our solution. Examples of retrofitting solutions and ship design changes include rotor sail technology and LED energy efficiency lighting. These projects are not being pursued as potential solutions because they require more significant changes to ship structure, and the payback period for these projects is often too long to incentivise ship owners to make the investment. For example, LED energy efficiency lighting can reduce CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions by up to 101 tons\/year, but the return on investment would not be realized for 8.2 years.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_40');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_783_1('footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_40');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[40]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_40\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u201cThe Retrofit Project.\u201d Green Ship of the Future, 2020.&nbsp;<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_40').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_783_1_40', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Thus, this lighting system is considered a long term solution and not logical within the scope of our project, as there is no immediate economic benefit for ship owners.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Originally, we thought that including retrofitting in our proposal would effectively minimize ship CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions and make shipping more sustainable. However, the scope of our research was too large. As a team, we did not have the capacity to thoroughly investigate retrofitting as a potential solution, so we came to the conclusion that cutting all forms of retrofitting and changes to ship design was the best way to help us narrow our scope and focus our research. Instead, we chose to pursue forms of alternative energy because this solution will have more immediate economic and environmental benefits.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/details><\/div>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_783_1();\">References<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_783_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_783_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_783_1\" style=\"display: none;\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">References<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_1');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. <em>Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities and Limits<\/em>, August 26, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.energypolicy.columbia.edu\/research\/report\/green-hydrogen-circular-carbon-economy-opportunities-and-limits.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_2');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Reinsch, William Alan, and Will O&#8217;Neill. \u201cHydrogen: The Key to Decarbonizing the Global Shipping Industry?\u201d Hydrogen: The Key to Decarbonizing the Global Shipping Industry? | Center for Strategic and International Studies. Center for Strategic and International Studies, November 18, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.csis.org\/analysis\/hydrogen-key-decarbonizing-global-shipping-industry.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_3');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Gencer, Emre. \u201cHydrogen.\u201d MIT Climate Portal. Accessed November 16, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/climate.mit.edu\/explainers\/hydrogen.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_4');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. <em>Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities and Limits<\/em>, August 26, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.energypolicy.columbia.edu\/research\/report\/green-hydrogen-circular-carbon-economy-opportunities-and-limits.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_5');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>How Is Green Hydrogen Produced?<\/em> <em>Hydro Tasmania<\/em>. Hydro-Electric Corporation, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.hydro.com.au\/clean-energy\/hydrogen.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_6');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. <em>Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities and Limits<\/em>, August 26, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.energypolicy.columbia.edu\/research\/report\/green-hydrogen-circular-carbon-economy-opportunities-and-limits.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_7');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. <em>Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities and Limits<\/em>, August 26, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.energypolicy.columbia.edu\/research\/report\/green-hydrogen-circular-carbon-economy-opportunities-and-limits.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_8');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fan, Zhiyuan, Emeka Ochu, Sarah Braverman, Yushan Lou, Griffin Smith, Amar Bhardwaj, Jack Brouwer, Julio Freeman, and Colin McCormick. Rep. <em>Green Hydrogen in a Circular Carbon Economy: Opportunities and Limits<\/em>, August 26, 2021. <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.energypolicy.columbia.edu\/research\/report\/green-hydrogen-circular-carbon-economy-opportunities-and-limits.<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_9');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_10');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Schumm, Brooke. n.d. \u201cFuel Cell.\u201d In <em>Encyclopedia Britannica<\/em>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/fuel-cell\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/fuel-cell<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_11');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_12');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Murray, Adrienne. 2020. \u201cThe Foul-Smelling Fuel That Could Power Big Ships.\u201d <em>BBC News<\/em>, November 6, 2020, sec. Business. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_13');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_14');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Murray, Adrienne. 2020. \u201cThe Foul-Smelling Fuel That Could Power Big Ships.\u201d <em>BBC News<\/em>, November 6, 2020, sec. Business. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/business-54511743<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_15');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Gallucci, Maria. 2021. \u201cWhy the Shipping Industry Is Betting Big on Ammonia &#8211; IEEE Spectrum.\u201d February 23, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/why-the-shipping-industry-is-betting-big-on-ammonia<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_16');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Contributor, Glenfiddich. \u201cGlenfiddich Brandvoice: Meet High Achievers Reimagining Wealth.\u201d <em>Forbes<\/em>, Forbes Magazine, 28 Oct. 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/glenfiddich\/2021\/10\/04\/meet-high-achievers-reimagining-wealth\/?sh=1016c46c157c\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/glenfiddich\/2021\/10\/04\/meet-high-achievers-reimagining-wealth\/?sh=1016c46c157c<\/span><\/a><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_17');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u201cEconomically Feasible Mobile Nuclear Power Plant for Merchant Ships and Remote Clients.\u201d <em>Taylor &amp; Francis<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/00295450.2018.1546067\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/00295450.2018.1546067<\/span><\/a><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_18');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>18<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u201cNuclear Merchant Ships: Five Fast Facts.\u201d <em>ANS<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ans.org\/news\/article-2010\/nuclear-merchant-ships-five-fast-facts\/\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.ans.org\/news\/article-2010\/nuclear-merchant-ships-five-fast-facts\/<\/span><\/a><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_19');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>19<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Maritime Vessel Obsolescence, Life Cycle Cost &#8230; &#8211; Iopscience<\/em>. <a href=\"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1757-899X\/95\/1\/012067\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1757-899X\/95\/1\/012067<\/span><\/a><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_20');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>20<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Namikawa, Shunichiro, et al. \u201cNuclear Powered Ships. 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Accessed November 20, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.greenfacts.org\/glossary\/abc\/bio-fuels.htm\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.greenfacts.org\/glossary\/abc\/bio-fuels.htm<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_35');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>35<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d <em>Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels<\/em>, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Mar. 2019, pp. 899\u2013909. <em>pubs.rsc.org<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_36');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>36<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d <em>Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels<\/em>, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Mar. 2019, pp. 899\u2013909. <em>pubs.rsc.org<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_37');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>37<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d <em>Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels<\/em>, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Mar. 2019, pp. 899\u2013909. <em>pubs.rsc.org<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_38');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>38<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"> Kesieme, Uchenna, et al. \u201cBiofuel as an Alternative Shipping Fuel: Technological, Environmental and Economic Assessment.\u201d <em>Sustainable Energy &amp; Fuels<\/em>, vol. 3, no. 4, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Mar. 2019, pp. 899\u2013909. <em>pubs.rsc.org<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/C8SE00466H<\/span><\/a>. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_39');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>39<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u201cThe Retrofit Project.\u201d Green Ship of the Future, 2020.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_783_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_783_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_783_1_40');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>40<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u201cThe Retrofit Project.\u201d Green Ship of the Future, 2020.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_783_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_783_1').show(); 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