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Battery Concerns

Current battery-electric trucks use lithium-ion batteries. Major materials found in these batteries are lithium, cobalt, and nickel[1]“Lithium Ion Battery – an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/lithium-ion-battery.. These are all acquired through mining, which negatively impacts the environment and human health. 

Lithium is a rare metal in its naturally occurring state, and is found in low concentrations in igneous rocks (most prominently granite), as well as some clays. Lithium extraction is extremely water intensive, and the majority of the world’s lithium is mined in South America and Australia, which are already dry regions. 

Perveen, T., Siddiq, M., Shahzad, N., et al., 2020. Prospects in anode materials for sodium ion batteries – A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 119, 109549.

Most lithium is extracted from brines[2]“Lithium – Element Information, Properties and Uses | Periodic Table.” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/3/lithium. that lay under salt flats. Water is pumped down to extract minerals and then the mixture of salts, minerals, and water is pumped back up to the surface[3]Bell, Terence. Columbia, University of British, and Carleton University. “What Are the Basics of Commercial Lithium Production?” ThoughtCo. Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading, where it sits in evaporation ponds. Once evaporated, lithium chloride remains. It is then processed with chemicals, such as hydrochloric acid, which leach into the water supply and soil. One such occurrence of this was in Tibet[4]“The Environmental Impact of Lithium Batteries – IER.” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/the-environmental-impact-of-lithium-batteries/., which resulted in the rapid decline of fish and yak populations in the Liqi River near the Ganzizhou Rongda Lithium Mine[5]Denyer, Simon. “Tibetans in Anguish as Chinese Mines Pollute Their Sacred Grasslands – The Washington Post.” The Washington Post, December 26, 2016. … Continue reading.

Cobalt mining also poses environmental concerns. Once cobalt leaches into soil and water, it doesn’t degrade, leading to radioactivity in ecosystems and drinking water. Cobalt mining can lead to the release of uranium[6]Mucha, Lena, Todd C. Frankel, and Karly Domb Sadof. “The Environmental Impact of Cobalt Mining – The Washington Post,” February 28, 2018. … Continue reading, carcinogens, and other particles that cause health problems in humans[7]Farjana, Shahjadi Hisan, Nazmul Huda, and M. A. Parvez Mahmud. “Life Cycle Assessment of Cobalt Extraction Process.” Journal of Sustainable Mining 18, no. 3 (August 1, 2019): 150–61. … Continue reading, and the release of cobalt particles into the air can lead to asthma or pneumonia [8]Farjana, Shahjadi Hisan, Nazmul Huda, and M. A. Parvez Mahmud. “Life Cycle Assessment of Cobalt Extraction Process.” Journal of Sustainable Mining 18, no. 3 (August 1, 2019): 150–61. … Continue reading. Roughly 70% of the world’s cobalt is mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. When Congolese miners were interviewed in 2016, many of them reported having chronic respiratory issues[9]The Toll of the Cobalt Mining Industry on Health and the Environment.” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-toll-of-the-cobalt-mining-industry-congo/..

There are also significant equity issues caused by cobalt mining. Mining the DRC involves about 255,000 total miners, of whom 40,000 are children[10]“The DRC Mining Industry: Child Labor and Formalization of Small-Scale Mining | Wilson Center.” Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. As lithium-ion battery production is increasing, the issues of child labor have been exacerbated. When CBS visited a mining area in the DRC, they found that two-thirds of the children who lived there worked in mines instead of attending school[11]“The Toll of the Cobalt Mining Industry on Health and the Environment.” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-toll-of-the-cobalt-mining-industry-congo/.. Minimal safety precautions result in the death and injury of these children, such as Raphael, a 17-year-old who was fatally crushed during a tunnel collapse[12]Lawson, Michele Fabiola. “I Saw the Unbearable Grief Inflicted on Families by Cobalt Mining. I Pray for Change.” The Guardian, December 16, 2019, sec. Global development. … Continue reading. Many injuries and deaths amongst children have similarly been reported.

In line with the problems associated with lithium mining, nickel mining is also extremely water-intensive. There are two forms of nickel, sulphides and laterites[13]Smith, Niall. “Nickel: A Green Energy Necessity With Environmental Risks | Maplecroft.” Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. While sulphides are less water-intensive and energy-intensive, stores are being depleted as demand for lithium-ion batteries, so mining is shifting more to laterites. 

Source: Verisk Maplecroft[14]Smith, Niall. “Nickel: A Green Energy Necessity With Environmental Risks | Maplecroft.” Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading

35% of laterite reserves are located in areas under high or extreme water stress[15]Smith, Niall. “Nickel: A Green Energy Necessity With Environmental Risks | Maplecroft.” Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. Additionally, laterite mining threatens ecosystems, as 39% of laterite reserves are in proximity to areas under high or extreme biodiversity stress[16]Smith, Niall. “Nickel: A Green Energy Necessity With Environmental Risks | Maplecroft.” Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading.

These problems are significant, yet many of them can potentially be avoided, especially as awareness and technological advancement increases. If battery technology shifts away from lithium-ion batteries in the near future, then the detrimental impacts due to lithium and cobalt mining could be reduced. New technologies might also allow for more environmentally-friendly mining procedures for these procedures. The government of the DRC can create laws surrounding the safety conditions of workers, such as mask mandates to mitigate the inhalation of cobalt dust, or protective covering mandates to reduce the intake through skin[17]“The Toll of the Cobalt Mining Industry on Health and the Environment.” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-toll-of-the-cobalt-mining-industry-congo/.. Additionally, the implementation of child labor laws could prevent unnecessary children’s deaths. The environmental impacts of nickel mining can also be mitigated through a shift in the supply chain. Sulphides are found in areas that are under less water and biodiversity stress[18]Smith, Niall. “Nickel: A Green Energy Necessity With Environmental Risks | Maplecroft.” Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. If reduced-waste policies were implemented to allow for the reuse of nickel, then sulphide mines would be usable for longer[19]Carlson, Carrie. “Meeting Nickel Demand for Lithium-Ion Batteries Will Be a Challenge.” FEECO International. Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. Additionally, water and energy guidelines surrounding the laterite extraction process could help save resources.

Manganese is currently being considered as a replacement for cobalt in lithium-ion batteries. Not only could using manganese in batteries increase storage capabilities by 50-100%[20]Nunez, Christina. “Researchers Eye Manganese as Key to Safer, Cheaper Lithium-Ion Batteries | Argonne National Laboratory.” Argonne National Laboratory. Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading, but it is also more environmentally friendly and safer to acquire than cobalt. Although increasing the amount of nickel in batteries could help reduce cobalt, there is concern about a nickel shortage in the near future[21]Carlson, Carrie. “Meeting Nickel Demand for Lithium-Ion Batteries Will Be a Challenge.” FEECO International. Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. Additionally, manganese is cheaper than nickel[22]Nunez, Christina. “Researchers Eye Manganese as Key to Safer, Cheaper Lithium-Ion Batteries | Argonne National Laboratory.” Argonne National Laboratory. Accessed November 20, 2021. … Continue reading. Thus, investing in manganese technology for lithium-ion batteries could improve battery efficiency and cost, as well as reduce the amount of cobalt and nickel mining which would slow the environmental and human health deterioration linked with those activities.

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